Kim Gentes

In the last four years I have read many thousands of pages of materials in researching an understanding of economics, history and culture. In that time I have read little that was as well-written and insightful as David Graeber's "Debt: the First 5,000 Years".

What initially holds Graeber's work above others is his contrarianism related to the foundations of Adam Smith's capitalism, especially the historical telling of barter as the nascent form of exchange that led eventually to our current modern version of free market capitalism. The author makes the point that debt, rather than barter and money, was the foundational language and system of exchange and has remained so for 5,000 years.  The book claims that Smith's story related to the origins of markets, as found within "The Wealth of Nations", is a contrived fiction in which barter is used as the seed explanation for how currency/money/economy developed.

The grander plot of the book is that reciprocation can expose itself in two primary ways - owing a favor, or owing a debt. As he says poignantly-

the difference between owing someone a favor, and owing someone a debt, is that the amount of a debt can be precisely calculated.1

The book starts off with a modern day controversy about global (specifically, third world) debt. The question is raised about whether paying back debt is a moral question. From this launching point, the author traces back, through his anthropological background, five millennia of understanding human societies and how their systems of debt have become the framework for our understanding and conversations about virtually every aspect of life, especially (and including) morality. Graeber states-

If one looks at the history of debt, then, what one discovers first of all is profound moral confusion. Its most obvious manifestation is that most everywhere, one finds that the majority of human beings hold simultaneously that (1) paying back money one has borrowed is a simple matter of morality, and (2) anyone in the habit of lending money is evil.2

Part of the reason that morality and debt are so closely and importantly linked for the author is that he goes to great lengths to connect the idea that the moral failure surrounding debt is not with the debtor (as current culture suggests) but the with creditor. Graeber makes this important distinction not purely on the present circumstance (in which one person places themselves in debt to another as part of an exchange), but uses historical and anthropological examples (and theory) to expose the fact that for thousands of years debt has been enforced by the most heinous means- from debt peonage, slavery, prostitution, imprisonment, war, violence and more. At the root of the human ability to harm and debase one another over a debt is the fact that debts devalue not just the items exchange, but the very people themselves.

From this perspective, the crucial factor, and a topic that will be explored at length in these pages, is money’s capacity to turn morality into a matter of impersonal arithmetic—and by doing so, to justify things that would otherwise seem outrageous or obscene...3

...The way violence, or the threat of violence, turns human relations into mathematics will crop up again and again over the course of this book.4

The book develops a long and complicated understanding of various ages of exchange in which society went from credit based exchange to coin/currency exchange and back and forth for various reasons. Graeber's work is compelling if not confusing. While he is obviously a brilliant researcher and thinker, he languishes several times in the book to keep himself on task to his earlier promises. Many points that look to be big items drift off aimlessly into side issues and what seems like favorite quotes from the authors research work rather than essential points to the thesis. One of Graeber's important points about exchange/market systems is that they are integrated tightly with government constructs of debt and war.

modern money is based on government debt, and that governments borrow money in order to finance wars.5

All of this actually does matter in his final thinking, but he mars the straight lines of thought by randomly attacking capitalist thinkers like Milton Friedman and Adam Smith because he doesn't like that they said things built on utopian models (though he admits that what they said ended up being true and actually working in the real world).  Graeber is right in one sense- it matters why society thinks the way they do, and how ideas that changed history came into being. But while he is proving his points he meanders unsuccessfully through some issues by pretending that his ability to invert the predicate logic of a phrase (i.e. "what does society owe us?" into "What do we owe society") is appropriately addressing the real issue.  But in the end, his book is much better than the faults he makes in crafting his narrative- because he asks some great questions.

The biggest of these is about the nature of exchange and the nature of value. At the core failure of humanity in relationship to debt is a devaluing not of goods, but of the human person itself. Graeber is at his best when he challenges us to recognize that our history and our current practices have run rampant not because we use one economic system or another (capitalism or such), but because we allow the exchange system to carry us too far -- we allow it to exchange human life for goods. In essence, our systems of debt exchange place a value on human life as a way of equating what can be paid back when the currency is not. This happens in slavery, debt peonage, debtors prisons, and even wage labor.  It is ultimately a very compelling point, since he basis it on solid history and plenty of modern examples.

Some may decry this book as anti-capitalist, but I think Graeber is reaching for a higher ideal than that. I think he is looking for valuing human life right on forward to the present. That we provide protection for wage laborers, abolish debt peonage systems (that still exist in some countries today), even human slavery and worse.  He is also advocating the questioning of some systems that were built on these premise and have become unchallenged (such as new NGO loan systems, World Bank and the IMF), leaving whole nations in essentially debt servitude to multi-national corporations and countries such as the US.

Though he says these things, Graeber is not a raving anti-capitalist. His book is well worth reading. It sparks of brilliance in places and requires serious thought.  The corruption of the value of human life has been enmeshed into the exchange of the marketplace, and for Graeber this must be untangled if we are to make better decisions for the future. For this, he deserves huge praise and an honest reading of the material. 

Amazon Book Link: http://amzn.to/WZkw0w

Review by Kim Gentes

1. Graeber, David (2011-07-12). Debt: The First 5,000 Years (Kindle Location 8120). Random House Inc Clients. Kindle Edition. 

2. Ibid., Kindle Locations 202-204

3. Ibid., Kindle Locations 310-312

4. Ibid., Kindle Locations 320-321

5. Ibid., Kindle Locations 7694-7695

Defining an era has come to be the popular work of historians who have had the fortune to write well enough to have appeal to the general public. The work of research, selection, collation, evaluation and summation on a given time and subject seems daunting enough. But imagine for a moment that you were tasked with writing a comprehensive book on a subject that covered about 1500 years of time and included most of the known world. This is the kind of work that was tackled by Edward Gibbon in writing his multi-volume tome, “The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire”.

Before we begin to appreciate the topic and contents of the book, we must recognize the unbelievable accomplishment of Gibbon. The sheer amount of content, volume of research and power of mind needed to accomplish this task is nothing short of legendary. And the impact resulting from this work has been no less impressive. Published in 1776, its appearance in the same year as two of the most important documents in modern history, The Wealth of Nations (by Adam Smith) and the American Declaration of Independence, is not subservient in weight to these other works. What these documents meant to the immediacy of political and economic changes in the 18th century and beyond, Gibbon’s work has meant to academicians, historians and scholars who received in “The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire” the seminal account of European (and world) history for the time period of 2nd to 14th century AD.

Exploring a summary of the details of this book is literally impossible in less than 20-30 page report for even the scantest of overviews. The Roman Empire, according to Gibbon, reached reached its apex power and stability within the purview of the reign of Augustus Caesar and was subsequently managed with intrepidity under the stewardship of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian and the two Antonines. The end of that era marked the conclusion of the Roman majestic glory, after which the fruit, growth and full harvest of corruption impaled the Empire with repeated thrusts of political, economic, military and societal failure. The Roman empire expired not in one cataclysmic event, but in a gradual failure of systems and life highlighted by poignant defeats throughout its structure. Indeed, according to Gibbon, it was the weight, success and vastness of this magnificent empire that ultimately pulled its components and leadership down on top of itself.

Gibbon’s articulation of the facts and illumination of the forces behind those facts builds this book into an epic not only of history but of the genius of this author's mind as a great tool of systems analysis.  The writing is so methodical, it takes on a rhythm in each progression of reign from emperors to dynasties to epochs. The reader is given a clear (even if daunting at times) assessment of each and every ruler of the Roman legacy. This is as one would expect. But what one would not expect is the deep and penetrating review of literally every other force at work throughout the known world during the long tenure of the Roman world. From Atilla the Hun to Mohammed (the growth of Islam) to Genghis Khan to the long and arduous story of the Christian religion to the history of each of the barbarian nations and tribes to the dozens of tribes and rulers of the Arab, Scandinavian, Germanic, African and even Mongol streams. Every single influence that made its presence felt in the Roman world is examined, with elaborate prose, via the pen of Edward Gibbon.

The writing is obviously scholarly, yet is very readable in our current English form. While it is rife with detail it is also pithy and even humorous at times. The only vise which Gibbon displays with regularity is his almost insistent propensity to present his points in threefold form. It seems like every section or detail was listed with a triplicate procession of reasons, even when it might have just been a habit that Gibbon filled with his illustrious prose rather than the succinct clarity of solid data. Gibbon also spends regular opportunity to berate the prejudices of various other historians of antiquity and the subjects of his own writing- although reading his book 250 years later, his own prejudices shine through as clearly as those he occasionally demonizes. It will always be the vice of every writer to misunderstand the worldview within which their own work was undertaken, and Gibbon does not escape from this truism. However, he does seem to be aware of this possibility and rains or shines on the variously good/bad qualities of any given subject where it was clearly needed.

It is from the story of Roman power and descent that we see the pre-eminent example of the idiom "power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely". The dozens of leaders and pretenders that rise and attempt the imperial purple of Roman emperorship turn into a mind-numbing repetition of ascent to prominence, coup of the current emperor, rise of power for the new, corruption and decline into another regime toppled by murderous treachery.  This cycle is so certain that it becomes the only surety in the Roman story during its decline. Yet, there are heroes- people whose noble character rises above a desire for power. And those great characters break the mantra of power and corruption. It is in that contrast that we can glimpse moments of greatness. In the Roman story there is a reflective narrative of our human condition- one that has tragedy and glory. It is within this meta-narrative that we can glean greatness- and Gibbon is an excellent narrator.

What you have in “The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire” is a complete and unrelenting archive of over a millennia of history of the greatest geopolitical entity that has ever existed on the earth.  It is written in strident prose and breathtaking detail. Included in the footnotes and commentary of the book is much about the various historical research that has been done since Gibbon’s work. While some small parts of the book's data are now recognized as misinformed, the vast majority of it stands not only as a great resource but as the seminal text of the Roman epic.

You may well have many reasons to avoid reading this book, including perhaps its size of over 3500 pages (depending on the version you are reading). But none of those reasons are worthy of stopping the thoughtful person from reading, understanding and gleaning the wisdom of this tremendous book.

Amazon Book Link: http://amzn.to/TqJLs7

Review by Kim Gentes

One of the greatest teachers in life is history. The ability to grasp, in our time, the effects and movements of the past is not just a discipline for  university arts departments but an important store of wisdom for all walks of life.  For the last few years, I have been researching specific realms of history- Christian history, church history, period history, economic history. But recently, I hoped to read something of a more comprehensive history that would cover the entire span of our known record of humanity. After a bit of research, I picked "History of the World" by J.M. Roberts as the volume to tackle for this purpose. I am both thankful and delighted to have read this book.

"History of the World" is a dazzlingly readable, even-handed and structured volume that attempts to accomplish the task of summarizing the chronicle of humanity by keeping its task to a defined set of parameters- it centers around the understanding and historiography of civilizations. Its vastness as a work is managed by Roberts keeping a sharp aim at disentangling himself from bringing enumerable details of trivial interest into the picture. He keeps to the task of defining the appearance of man, the eventual birth of civilizations, the development of distinct collectives of civilizations (what would later become nations/peoples), the primary movements and interactions of the civilizations, the main thinkers, leaders and influencers of those civilizations and the uncountable interconnections (and their important effects) amongst the civilizations that would eventually develop. More than just events on a chronographical timeline, Roberts also talks about huge influencing concepts, such as religions, nationalities, ideologies, major epochs, technologies, and pivotal events and people.

What I enjoyed most was the fact that such a voluminous book (a massive 1,200 pages) was consistent throughout the chapters in its approach yet remained enjoyable, even dryly humorous at times. No subject was treated without the possibility of uncovering paradoxical viewpoints- to which Roberts was constantly going to detail to help the reader see. You left feeling like specific points in history weren't as singularly simplistic as you had once heard. I liked this approach as it removes dogmatic viewpoints from becoming the plumb line of how we look back on the past.

The book covers so vast a subject matter I will not try to comprehensively summarize it here. Consider the title of the book as proper and accurate scope of its content and you will be both well informed and well pleased as you read. You will hear and understand everything from pre-historical Paleolithic man, to the first Sumerian and Mesopotamian civilizations, to the ancient classical world of Greek and Roman dominance to Medieval Europe to developing China and India, to enlightenment struck modernity to imperialist Europe, dominated Africa, the explosive growing American continents (as well as their colonialist discovery and expansion), world wars of the 20th century and the trek of history right up to the present day. In one sweeping volume Roberts breathes life and engagement into the real inertia you find flowing across the civilizations of the world through history- man as a change agent in and to his own environment.

In my reviewing of the book, I initially found several small points of minor error (the light treatment of a major figure such as Napoleon, mistaken biographical information on Castro and incorrect dating of the first man on the moon). However, I quickly learned there was an updated edition of the book, which I secured and read. It is clear the editors who updated the work have taken their jobs seriously as the last revision ("The New Penguin History of the World" - rev 5) addressed every issue I could find- either correcting it outright, or properly formatting the narrative to remove the erroneous way in which the data could be misinterpreted. The only very slight hint of editorializing I sensed in the book was the regularly appreciative nods to the last 3 centuries of English history. Roberts occasionally gives possible discounting benevolence to the intentions of the British imperial actions in both its expansive and contracting years. The leaning is slight, but it does tend to feel a bit discounting of a number of times of British actions that surely would not have seemed "better intentioned" as Roberts often implies.  This is a minor and understandable pause in his otherwise amazingly apt and generally conciliatory tone taken for most subjects of uncertain nature.

Overall the book was absolutely astounding in keeping account of such huge proportions of our history while still retaining a vital and engaging narrative. I can't recommend it enough- if you have a spare 60 hours, this is your best bet for a truly great read!

Amazon Book Link: http://amzn.to/12haJFZ

Review by Kim Gentes

Tracing the history of financial development seemed like a good idea at the time. But what I found most often (in books I perused before buying) was that most books focused on economics, whose cogent thinkers don't arrive on the scene until the 18th century. Then I found "The Ascent of Money", whose apt title keeps a sharp focus on the instruments of exchange rather than the philospohies of theories, political bents of champions, or minute formulae of econometrics.

"The Ascent of Money" begins with ancient times in Mesopotamia and accounts for us the tale of first ledger accounts that were made with clay markers- the first instance of bonafide money. Since those first signs of tokens of exchange, humans have invented ways of marking wealth with various devices. Without spending time on economy, Ferguson accelerates through history, reaching mideavil Europe in fairly short order.

His goal is clear- trace the uses and demands of how people, leaders and governments invented mechanisms for exchange, funded expansion, waged wars, invented industries and toppled kingdoms. All with the tool of money.  He explains the details of how various forms of exchange, from metals to paper to digital balances made their way into society.

The book is exceptional writing, with dizzying amounts of information, but all kept sharply in focus of the topic. Even as he explains M1, M2, M3, securities-backed derivatives or the failure of LTCM and more, the reader never feels left in the dark by a harried professor trying to overwhelm you with all their brilliant knowledge. Ferguson is obviously a brilliant scholar, but he doesn't lean on details to impress the student, he weaves a thoughtful narrative that calls out the minutia in appropriate amounts and at the appropriate times.  After reading several other books on the history of economics, it was wonderful to read a book that dealt with monetary development without being theory driven or school biased.

If you love history, you will love this book. I learned an exceptional amount about money in all its forms and enjoyed the writing the entire way through. An excellent book. I highly recommend it!

Amazon Book Link: http://amzn.to/RJMVaB

Review by Kim Gentes

“The Gifts of the Jews” is the second book in the “the Hinges of History” series from Thomas Cahill. In many ways this book should probably be considered the first book, since it forms as its base the chronological beginnings for much of the other materials that come later in the series. The point of the book is simply to explore the narrative of the origins of Hebrew people, how the nation of Israel was formed and developed, and how that led to some of the most important philosophical, spiritual and intellectual advances across the globe and across history. Author Thomas Cahill is as unashamed of his admiration for the Jews and their narrative as he is about pointing to their faults and inconsistencies that he believes he finds in the story.  The Gifts of the Jews presents both and in doing so lends credibility to both his thesis and his manner of presenting it.

The author begins with the literal origins of civilization, exploring and articulating from ancient times how the Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia progressed from the cradle of life to the launchpad for innovation and avarice. He shows how the original cities came into being in Sumer, examines one of the first written stories, “The Epic of Gilgamesh”, and details with imaginative freedom the temples, cult and ritual of the ancient Sumarians. In doing this, he creates the backdrop for the world in which appeared the nomadic Semitics, whom Cahill eventually identifies as the people from which Abraham (though he uses the technical translation of Avraham in his writing) comes.  Having set the stage well, The Gifts of the Jews begins with the story of Abraham, his family and the unique gift of faith that he represents. The author’s knowledge of world history helps to give us pointers on the many “firsts” that the Jews give us, including faith:

This God gives and takes beyond human reasoning or justification. Because his motives are not interpretable and his thoughts and actions are not foreseeable, anything—and everything—is possible. Many new things have already come into being as a result of this relationship, but faith most of all, which prior to Avraham had no place in religious feeling and imagination. Because all is possible, faith is possible, even necessary.[1]

From that point on, Cahill attributes the Jews with not only introducing the notion of faith, but time, individuality and even the concept of history itself:

Since time is no longer cyclical but one-way and irreversible, personal history is now possible and an individual life can have value.[2]

and

But the God of Avraham, Yitzhak, and Yaakov—no longer your typical ancient divinity, no longer the archetypal gesturer—is a real personality who has intervened in real history, changing its course and robbing it of predictability.[3]

finally:

The Israelites, by becoming the first people to live—psychologically—in real time, also became the first people to value the New and to welcome Surprise. In doing this, they radically subverted all other ancient worldviews[4]

Like all his books in this series, Cahill’s pithy writing is combined with an authentic ability to mine some meta-narrative truths. This one is a great example of such discovery:

Like Avraham, he never doubts the information of his senses—that this is really happening—only God’s lack of realism...[5]

I find this a particularly poignant note of the authors. Cahill is absolutely hit the nail on the head here, as anyone who has tried to follow YHWH knows. God seems to have a juxtaposed sense of “reasonableness” in almost anyone he calls to live with Him in relationship.  From Abraham to Joseph to David to the prophets to the disciples. Nothing significant is done by someone who is just “doing what makes sense”. While not other-worldly, YHWH asks men and women to dare to do things beyond themselves, knowing his spirit will be needed to actually do anything in “reality”. This point has never been made strong enough in the biblical teaching I’ve received or given. It is not as naive as heroism, but rather an unlinking of the desire to stay safe by trusting God fully. Sometimes in utter fear and trembling, but still obedient, knowing it the right thing to do, despite the serious threats to the contrary.

Cahill goes on to give the entire narrative (less than more) of the people of Israel, right up until the final exile of Judah and eventual restoration through the edict of Persian King Cyrus in 538 BC. In his retelling, the author points to the Jews as the originators of justice both personal and societal, through the introduction of the 10 Commandments[6]. He also acclaims Jews for being the inventors of leisure, or rest  from work, saying “No ancient society before the Jews had a day of rest.”[7] Cahill points to the story of David and the example of his triumph over Goliath as the ultimate story of hope for the weak and powerless. Speaking of David’s speech before slaying Goliath, he says:

This is a wonderful speech—and a wonderful moment in the history of Israel and of the human race—a resounding assertion that God is on the side of the small and powerless, not the high and mighty. This is a confrontation that has fixed itself permanently in human imagination; and who could count how many supposedly hopeless causes it has given strength and comfort to?[8]

Before retiring to the greatness of this book and author, I must lodge at least one essential objection. Cahill builds such a good rhythm between Hebrew scripture, historical context and plain good thinking that we can become anaesthetised to some of his flat out erroneous statements.  I will point out just one place in which he runs his ship into a gigantic rock of presumption and contradiction.

But even without resorting to modern scientific methodology or noticing what an inconsistent palimpsest the Hebrew Bible can be, we must reject certain parts of the Bible as unworthy of a God we would be willing to believe in. We read, for instance, in the Book of Joshua that God commanded the Israelites to put all Canaanites, even children, to the sword; and in the Psalms the poet regularly urges God to effect the brutal destruction of all the poet’s enemies. Though the people who wrote such words may have believed they were inspired by God, we cannot. ... But it remains true that there is no way of attributing mass carnage and vindictive slaughter to a God worth believing in. Even the fiercest believer among us must, I think, admit that these operations were the work of human beings who had wrongly convinced themselves that God was on their side.[9]

Cahill does not ask us to look at historical evidence, textual evidence or even possible modern scholarship that might put some source in question. No, instead, here he asks us to set aside the content of the text simply because he can’t believe in a God who would do such things. This is a tragic misstep for the author because he doesn’t make this kind of aberration of logic on such a major point in any other place in the book. While I can understand (and sympathise) with Cahill’s point (as can most people), we simply can’t accept our moral compass to be the judge of God’s judgments and character.  And, in fact, this goes against Cahill’s primary source of Hebrew distinction amongst all the other nations of the world - the “Voice”.  One of the author’s main thesis points is that the “Voice” that Avram follows is the great distinguishing source of reality that leads Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, the patriarchs and all Israel into the discoveries and truths that Cahill lauds.  If the “Voice” that declared the Decalogue is the voice we must listen to, then the same voice cannot be ignored if he commands Abraham to sacrifice his son on the altar.  We can look in hindsight and parlay our thoughts and justifications against these actions which we find painful and in-congruent, but ultimately leaving out these truths (and they are truths spoken by the same voice) means we leave out the Mystery of the Voice, which history has shown us is as important as any knowing of the same Voice, perhaps even more so. If the Voice is God, then we surely are not, and we must not, drown out his words with our murmurings and justifications of a “God we’d like”. Cahill fails on his attempt to make YHWH into the God “he’d like”, and a sound review of his book would be remiss if this point was not brought up.

That said, with this book, as with the others in this series, there is so many poignant points we can scarcely give even the most important a mention. But towering over all of them are the twin points of individualism (including personal choice as a way of transforming the present and future) and the requirement of all people to gain a sense of conscience and justice, which must eventually lead to freedom. I will allow quotes from Cahill himself to summarize his book most aptly:

The Jews gave us the Outside and the Inside—our outlook and our inner life. We can hardly get up in the morning or cross the street without being Jewish. We dream Jewish dreams and hope Jewish hopes. Most of our best words, in fact—new, adventure, surprise; unique, individual, person, vocation; time, history, future; freedom, progress, spirit; faith, hope, justice—are the gifts of the Jews.[10]

and

Nor can we imagine the great liberation movements of modern history without reference to the Bible. Without the Bible we would never have known... Democracy, in contrast, grows directly out of the Israelite vision of individuals, subjects of value because they are images of God, each with a unique and personal destiny. There is no way that it could ever have been “self-evident that all men are created equal” without the intervention of the Jews.[11]

Amazon Book & Kindle Book Link : http://amzn.to/yQlCBr

Review by Kim Gentes

[1] Cahill, Thomas, “The Gifts of the Jews: How a Tribe of Desert Nomads Changed the Way Everyone Thinks and Feels (Hinges of History)”. (New York, NY: Random House 1998)., Kindle Edition, Page 93

[2] Ibid., Page 95

[3] Ibid., Page 98

[4] Ibid., Page 128

[5] Ibid., Page 107

[6] Ibid., Page 146, 156

[7] Ibid., Page 144

[8] Ibid., Page 180

[9] Ibid., Page 245-246

[10] Ibid., Page 240

[11] Ibid., Page 248